Aztecs

Few people know much about the Aztecs beyond the fact that they executed and sacrificed thousands of warriors in ways that modern society finds too gruesome to comprehend. However, much of the Aztec civilization remains forgotten or overlooked, including their organized social structure, the ingenious Chinampa farming system, and their extensive, well-regulated market networks. In fact, many of the European conquistadors who later dismantled this empire were astonished by the Aztec advancements. As Inga Clendinnen pointed out, “too much emphasis on such gory practices promotes sensationalism and only serves to distract readers from the more noble and seemly aspects of Aztec society, as well as from the everyday life and culture of the people.” While many scholars focus on the sensational elements of Aztec society, it was the cultural, scientific, and economic achievements of their daily life that truly distinguished this civilization. As Cortés disembarked from his ships and made his way toward the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs engaged in a pastime far removed from the expectations of a traditionally warlike and gruesome civilization: stargazing. Entire families would ascend to the rooftops of the city's tallest buildings to enjoy the best views of the night sky. The elders taught the younger children about the connection between their souls and the teteo (the natural forces of the gods), while many Aztec rulers relied on royal astronomers to guide their political decisions through the movements of stars and other celestial bodies. This illustrates that the Aztecs were far more than a warlike tribe fixated on human sacrifice and cannibalism. As David Carrasco notes in his book Daily Life of the Aztecs, "Almost all narratives about the peoples and cultures of the Americas begin with the arrival of Europeans in the New World…this gives exaggerated credit and prestige to the Europeans’ initiatives, 'discoveries,' and colonial projects. But Native Americans were also active on and before those dates—farming, loving, giving birth, painting, watching the stars, fighting, singing, working, and creating prized works of ritual art." Religion was central to Aztec daily life. Their faith permeated every aspect of existence, as everything they did influenced their relationship with the gods and natural forces. The Aztecs believed that their lives were intertwined with the divine; only through the will of the supreme beings could society thrive. For instance, during the Toxcatl ceremony, the community selected an individual to embody the warrior god Tezcatlipoca, reflecting their belief that humans served as portals to the gods. This individual was trained to dress, speak, and behave like the god, earning the community's reverence akin to that of Tezcatlipoca. After a year, he was publicly sacrificed, a ritual that renewed and strengthened the bond between the divine and humanity. Perhaps the most renowned of these ceremonies was the New Fire Ceremony, held every fifty-two years to replenish Tonatiuh, the sun, with human blood and to renew the world. Hundreds of warriors from neighboring regions were captured and sacrificed during this event, their blood cascading from the top of the pyramid and flowing through the crowds. While these ceremonies represent extreme and sensationalized aspects of Aztec religious practice, their faith permeated every facet of life. Each individual was seen as a conduit between nature and the gods, and the Aztecs structured their lives around religious obligations. Aztec society was organized into a social pyramid, mirroring its European counterpart. At the base were agricultural workers and commoners, while merchants, ordinary warriors, and lower-ranking priests comprised the middle class. At the pinnacle of Aztec society stood high-ranking warriors, priests, nobles, and the king. Unlike European civilizations, the Aztecs shared a much closer bond. Each person had their place in life, determined by natural signs that dictated their occupation and social standing, yet collaboration was the norm among them. They evolved from a crude, mercenary society into a remarkable civilization. All young men had the opportunity to become warriors, advancing socially through hard work and bravery in battles against neighboring tribes. This created a more fluid social structure than that of European societies, allowing even common peasants to make a significant impact. However, despite the potential for upward mobility, distinct differences between the upper and lower classes remained, playing a crucial role in the functioning of society. Each individual worked diligently to improve their standing, but once their place was established, they accepted it for the greater good of the community. Every group, even the humble farmers, had deities who supported them and warded off aggression from the higher classes. The Aztec education system began just twenty days after childbirth, as all parents aspired for their sons to become exemplary members of society. Throughout their early lives, the entire community took on the responsibility of educating the children in both secular and religious matters. Education was not reserved for the privileged; rather, it was a communal obligation to prepare the young who would eventually take their place. Parents determined the path their child would follow, and this choice largely dictated how they would live for the rest of their lives. David Carrasco noted that life for an Aztec was essentially a series of rites of passage, introducing eight key “biological or social changes”: childbirth, infancy, work, schooling, marriage, parenting, death, and the afterlife. Each of these stages is undeniably significant in the lifecycle, but the Aztecs were a civilization steeped in ceremony, celebrating each milestone with festivities. For example, at childbirth, a basket, a broom, or a spindle would be placed in the hands of a newborn girl, while a shield would be placed in the left hand and an arrow in the right hand of a newborn boy. Rites of passage permeated every aspect of Aztec life, providing individuals with a sense of accomplishment in fulfilling their societal duties. In contrast, Europeans often viewed life as a stark struggle between the aristocratic elite and the vast peasant population. Life for the Aztecs was often challenging, yet they found ways to infuse creativity into their daily existence. They believed that art was divinely inspired by the gods, with artists merely expressing imperfect interpretations of divine will. Various types of artists flourished in Aztec society, including painters, writers, sculptors, leatherworkers, and other creative professionals. Priests trained the tlacuilo (artists) in the rich history and mythology of the Aztec civilization, creating picture books to preserve their cultural legacy. These books chronicled wars, festivals, changes in rulers, and tales of the gods, ensuring that their history would endure for future generations. Tragically, Juan de Zumárraga, the Archbishop of Spanish Mexico, confiscated and destroyed over 2,000 of these invaluable picture books, leaving only 16 known to have survived to this day. The tlamatinime (masters of speech) also held a vital place in society, weaving metaphors and poetry into everyday life and providing a source of entertainment for the community. These men would capture the spotlight, sharing stories with the children and entertaining the working adults with riddles and jokes. Most sources indicate that the Aztecs had a deep appreciation for humor and storytelling, making these elements integral to their daily lives. The way they spoke often earned them respect from others. Archaeological findings reveal that much of Aztec literature was devoted to riddles and poetry, further illustrating their rich cultural heritage. Various professions also highlighted the diverse nature of Aztec culture, including leatherworkers, sculptors, and potters. Although much archaeological evidence was lost in the aftermath of the Spanish conquest, remnants of Aztec artistic brilliance still endure. When Bernal Díaz del Castillo entered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, he struggled to articulate his awe: "We were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments told of in the legend of Amadis, due to the great towers and temples rising from the water, all constructed of masonry… the palaces where we were housed! How spacious and well-built they were, crafted from beautiful stone and cedar wood, along with other fragrant trees, featuring grand rooms and courtyards, truly wonderful to behold, adorned with awnings of cotton cloth." His words capture the majestic beauty that the Spaniards encountered in this remarkable civilization. Unlike typical European cities, Tenochtitlan took immense pride in its cleanliness and aesthetic appeal. Each citizen contributed to the beauty of the city by maintaining exquisite gardens, while trash and waste were systematically removed from public spaces. Perhaps the most ingenious aspect of this urban design was the chinampa system, which allowed the Aztecs to construct their city on a marshy lake. With this innovative approach, the Aztecs were years ahead of their European counterparts in agricultural advancements. The fertile soil surrounding the marshes enabled the Aztecs to create small fields by piling dirt, mud, and vegetation between wooden supports, cultivating crops such as maize and tomatoes. Canals were then built around the perimeter of these fields, reinforcing the unstable soil with the roots of fast-growing willow trees. Within just a few months, these fields could yield abundant harvests, while the canals provided an efficient transportation network for distributing goods. This system not only produced rich soil and an excess of food but also allowed the Aztecs to store surplus rations in alhondigas (public granaries). In fact, these granaries could sustain the Aztec civilization for several years, even during periods when droughts or frosts devastated crops for up to a decade. Additionally, managing this agricultural bounty required a complex and mathematical bureaucracy. As food production flourished, the Aztecs began to repurpose the chinampa system to create space for buildings, parks, gardens, and recreational areas, transforming their landscape into a vibrant urban environment. What was once unstable land was transforming into a secure foundation for the Aztecs to settle. To honor the gods, the first structures erected were pyramid temples that overlooked the city, providing the best vantage points. At its peak, archaeologists estimate that there were 78 major religious buildings in the city center, housing thousands of servants dedicated to the gods. Many Spaniards wrote about the stunning temples, encrusted with gold and precious metals, adorned with intricate sculptures and carvings. Bernal Díaz del Castillo marveled, “In the highest part of the temple was a recess, richly adorned with woodwork, and within it stood another image, half man and half lizard, covered in precious stones, with half its body draped in a mantle.” At its zenith, Tenochtitlan boasted nearly 200,000 citizens, with hundreds of thousands more scattered throughout the surrounding countryside. Tragically, much like the exquisite Aztec artistry, the architecture was largely destroyed in the years following the Spaniards' arrival, buried beneath present-day Mexico City. In terms of diet, the Aztecs demonstrated an impressive ability to cultivate highly productive vegetation in a challenging climate, far surpassing their European counterparts. The introduction of Mesoamerican plants to Europe sparked remarkable population growth. For example, the Aztecs cultivated corn instead of wheat or rice, benefiting from a crop that yielded, on average, twice as much as the popular European staples. Corn also contained significantly more carbohydrates and sugars per unit. Additionally, crops like chilies and tomatoes contributed high levels of vitamins and minerals to their diet, while the Aztecs sourced their protein from a diverse array of animals, including gophers, armadillos, mice, iguanas, turkeys, and dogs. From the ocean, they consumed various types of fish and frogs, as well as insects and their larvae. In comparison, the Aztecs enjoyed a much more balanced and nutritious diet than their European counterparts. The Aztecs were adept at maintaining cleanliness in their city, as demonstrated by their aqueducts that transported fresh water from nearby springs. While many major European cities continued to rely on polluted river water—such as London’s dependence on the Thames—the Aztecs ensured a steady supply of fresh water, even constructing two separate aqueducts to safeguard against malfunctions or the need for cleaning. Regarding human waste, the Aztecs built several outhouses where waste was collected for use as fertilizer or in the tanning of animal hides. Even urine was repurposed as dye. It is estimated that Tenochtitlan employed over a thousand public workers dedicated to sweeping the streets and watering the gardens, ensuring the city remained beautiful. Most Europeans were struck by the Aztec practice of bathing daily, complete with soaps and fragrances, a stark contrast to the infrequent baths taken by Europeans. While much of Aztec medicine might seem simplistic or even bizarre, they were, in fact, more advanced than their European counterparts. Although the Aztecs attributed many diseases to various gods, their methods of healing left the Spaniards in awe. They maintained an extensive botanical garden filled with specimens from across the empire. Ill patients received these harvested plants at no cost, provided they reported their experiences. This approach led to the collection and organization of extensive data, and through experimentation, many effective cures were discovered. For instance, while Europeans often treated wounds by cauterizing them with boiling oil and praying for healing, the Aztecs employed a far more empirical method for treating flesh wounds. First, they would cauterize the wound with urine—sterile and antibiotic in nature—then treat it with matlalxihuitl (a herb), and finally dress the wound with hot agave leaf sap, sometimes adding salt. Compared to European methods of wound treatment, the Aztec approach was significantly more advanced. Their expertise extended beyond wound care; they could cure fevers, induce sweating or nausea, and alleviate symptoms of various common illnesses. While the Aztec society excelled in many areas compared to their European counterparts, many experts argue that their primary focus was trade. As Fernando Horcasitas notes, the Aztec "empire" was far from a unified nation or even a confederation of peoples. Instead, it functioned as an economic empire, with conquered provinces and kingdoms required to pay tribute to their conquerors, consistently and in full. The differences between the Aztecs and their subordinate kingdoms become particularly clear when examining how the Tlaxcalans allied themselves with the Spaniards at the onset of the conquest. Indeed, the Aztec emphasis on trade and the strengthening of their economy often came at the expense of their satellite states, which may have ultimately contributed to their downfall. Stories abound about how the Aztecs demanded human sacrifices and large food supplies in exchange for sparing cities from attack, which certainly did not endear them to surrounding populations. However, the Aztec economy was far more intricate and organized than a mere tributary system. Bernard del Castillo noted, “We turned back to look at the great marketplace and the crowds of people within it, some buying and others selling… so large a marketplace, so full of people, and so well regulated and arranged.” In truth, the Aztecs had an exceptionally detailed system to ensure that the tianquiztli (market) was fair and balanced. Each neighborhood boasted its own market, attracting villagers from the countryside and fostering a social atmosphere where old friends could reunite and new relationships could blossom. Once in the marketplace, the entire system was overseen by members of the ruling class. Sellers paid a fee to set up shop, while government employees monitored the quality of goods, maintained order, and mediated disputes between sellers and consumers. Each marketplace featured a justice house where ten or twelve judges resolved major conflicts, ensuring that the marketplace functioned smoothly and fairly. The Aztecs did not use a common currency; instead, they relied on a complex barter system. Those caught stealing, counterfeiting, or selling stolen goods faced severe consequences, often brought before judges and, in many cases, sentenced to death. Such a regulated marketplace necessitated an extensive transportation network, exemplified by the vast fleet of canoes. Goods flowed seamlessly between the bustling marketplaces of Tenochtitlan and the surrounding cities along the shores of Lake Tezcoco, connecting over twenty major towns and provinces. While this system could be slow and was sometimes at the mercy of the weather, the Aztec canoe transportation network effectively facilitated trade and contributed to the dynamic nature of their marketplaces. Although the Aztecs relied on tribute from their vassals—an aspect that arguably contributed to their eventual downfall—their ability to manage and administer such a large economy demonstrates remarkable planning and organization. The Aztecs were far more than a simplistic society fixated on human sacrifice and cannibalism. While a profound sense of religion permeated their lives, they built a thriving civilization that rivaled the achievements of contemporary European societies. Culturally, scientifically, and economically, many facets of Aztec society were at least as advanced as those of their European counterparts.